Another interesting read was Critical Mass by Philip Ball, in which he explores how the complex behaviour of crowds - people, grains of sand or molecules - can be governed by each participating “agent” adhering to very simple rules. He uses insights from the field of statistical physics to model situations where human crowds interact, such as markets, audiences, electorates etc.

His point is that in order to explain the behaviour of crowds there is no need to look at the individual agents in too much detail. He acknowledges that his models are extreme simplifications of reality, but show that even with this gross simplification the rules of the agents’ interaction dictate the macroscopic behaviour of the group.

I’ve just read “Small things considered” by Henry Petroski. The book is subtitled “why there is no perfect design”, and explains how product design is shaped by constraints that are often conflicting and change over time. He uses everyday, seemingly trivial objects as examples - like the paperclip. Although the idea of the paperclip itself (i.e. using a springy bent wire to hold together sheets of paper) is clever but hardly a quantum leap what made it’s widespread use possible was the design of a machine that could make them cheaply in high volumes. The same drive by production technology has governed innovation in the design of the paper (later plastic) disposable drinking cup.

Using examples ranging from kitchen sinks to car cupholders and staircases to supermarket layout Petroski explores other common constraints and drivers. Especially interesting are constraints dictated by conventions: Ever wondered why on phones the top row of numbers is 1, 2, 3 whereas on calculators it is 7, 8, 9?